Sikap adalah evaluasi terhadap aspek-aspek dunia sosial, yang mana sikap tersebut sangat mempengaruhi pemikiran sosial kita. Menurut Thurstone, sikap adalah evaluasi psikologis terhadap suatu obyek tertentu yang mengarah pada positif atau negatif.
Setiap
orang memiliki sikap karena sikap merupakan komponen dari person (orang) dalam
berinteraksi dengan karakteristik personal yang lain misalnya motif, nilai,
kepribadian yang kemudian berinteraksi dengan faktor-faktor lingkungan kemudian
menghasilkan perilaku.
Ø Fungsi sikap meliputi:
- Ego dafense ( mempertahankan ego), membantu orang untuk melindungi diri dari informasi yang tidak diinginkan tentang dirinya.
- Impression motivation (motivasi impresi),semakin besar fungsi sikap sebagai motivasi untuk menimbulkan impresi pada orang lain, maka semakin kuat pula individu berusaha menghasilkan argumen yang mendukung pandangan tersebut
- Self esteem (penghargaan diri), membantu kita untuk mempertahankan atau meningkatkan perasaan harga diri
- Knowledge Function (fungsi pengetahuan), memebantu kita dalam mengorganisasi dan menginterpretasikan informasi soasial
- Expressing values,yang terdiri dari, terminal values yang berisikan keadilan, kebebasan, pemenuhan hak pribadi. Instrumental values yang berisikan kejujuran, keberanian, kesucian,ketaatan
Sikap
terbentuk dan berkembang melalui proses pembelajaran sosial, yang meliputi:
- Learning by observing others, sikap dipelajari melalui observasi atau pengamatan terhadap orang lain. Le
- Learning through reward:instrumental conditioning, sikap dipelajari melalui reward (hadiah)
- Learning through association: classical conditioning, sikap dipelajari melalui asosiasi.
- Learning by direct experince, sikap dipelajari melalui pengalaman langsung setiap orang.
- Observing our own behavior, sikap dipelajari melalui pengamatan terhadap perilaku sendiri.
Tidak
semua sikap dapat menjadi perilaku, semuanya tergantung pada sumber suatu sikap
(attitude origins),sikap yang dibentuk oleh pengalaman langsung memiliki
konsistensi yang lebih besar untuk menjadi perilaku. Kekuatan sikap juga akan
mempengaruhi tingkah laku, semakin kuat sikap tersebut, semakin kuat pula
dampaknya pada tingkah laku.Selain itu,adanya vested interest, sejauh mana
sikap tersebut relevan dengan individu yang memilikinya, objek, atau isu itu
memiliki konsekuensi penting bagi orang tersebut.Sikap mempengaruhi perilaku
melalui dua mekanisme yang berbeda. Ketika kita dapat memberikan pemikiran yang
mendalam terhadap sikap kita, intensi yang berasal dari sikap kita dapat
memprediksikan dengan
kuat tingkah laku kita. Sementara dalam situasi dimana kita tidak dapat
melakukan pertimbangan tersebut, sikap memepengaruhi tingkah laku dengan
memebentuk persepsi kita terhadap situasi tersebut.
Sikap dapat
diubah dengan cara komunikasi persuasif. Dimana proses komunikasi persuasif
bergantung pada komponen berikut ini:
- Source (narasumber), narasumber itu harus memilki kredibilitas,menarik, power(kekuasaan) agar pesan yang disampaikan oleh narasumber yang mempunyai kekuasaan lebih mengena diterima oleh audience
- Karakteristik pesan
- Karakteristik audience
- Chanel Factors, ex: audio visual.
Cells in the Nervous System
Tues Composer Nervous System
Nervous systems are composed of two types of cells:
- Neurons (nerve cells)
- Glia / neuroglia (supporting cells
Neurons
Role
Neurons are cells specialized to:
Neurons are cells specialized to:
- Reception (reception), conduction (delivery) and transmission (spread) the various signalsreceiving information and transmitting it to other cells
- Organize information from the body and the external environment, evaluating, sorting, selecting, integrating, coordinating, and deciding as needed
- The point is responsible for the human eye out everything you do: move, thoughts, memories, emotions
- Neurons in the adult brain of about 100 billion
Neuron classification - by form of branched
- Multipolar Neurons: neurons with dendrites that more than two out of its cell body
- Unipolar neurons: neurons with a branch coming out of the cell body, then the branch will be split in two
- Bipolar neurons: neurons with that branch out from the cell body on the side opposite
Neuron classification - by function
- sensory neurons: (input) carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cord
- the motor neurons: (output) sends the output from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and organs
- interneurons: (integration) input connector output
Theory of Personality is Very Diverse
The existence of different points of view, so there is no comprehensive theory of personality that is very
Not an exact science, so there is no theory that the right / best one. Each theory has its advantages and disadvantages.
Not an exact science, so there is no theory that the right / best one. Each theory has its advantages and disadvantages.
Why are so various theories of personality?
- Personality is a complex matter
- Of differences in historical background and personality of the originator of the theory
- Personality is a science that is still relatively "young"
- Of differences in historical background and personality of the originator of the theory
- Personality is a science that is still relatively "young"
What is personality?
Personality is the entire mental organization of a human being at any stage of his development. It embraces every phase of human character: intellect, temperament, skill, morality, and every attitude That has been built up in the course of one's life. "(Warren & Carmichael, 1930)
"Personality is the essence of a human being." (Hall & Lindzey, 1957, characterizing statements by Gordon Allport)
"An individual's pattern of psychological processes arising from motives, feelings, thoughts, and other major areas of psychological function. Personality is expressed through its influences on the body, in conscious mental life, and through the individual's social behavior." (Mayer, 2005)
Personality as an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics may nevertheless That change in response to different situation (Schultz, 1986).
"Personality is the essence of a human being." (Hall & Lindzey, 1957, characterizing statements by Gordon Allport)
"An individual's pattern of psychological processes arising from motives, feelings, thoughts, and other major areas of psychological function. Personality is expressed through its influences on the body, in conscious mental life, and through the individual's social behavior." (Mayer, 2005)
Personality as an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics may nevertheless That change in response to different situation (Schultz, 1986).
Assessment / Measurement of Personality
Personality assessment as one of the main area of application of psychology in the real world.
-Clinical psychologist trying to distinguish between normal people with abnormal personality traits and try to evaluate his client to understand the symptoms and feelings. Through proper personality assessment clinical psychologist can determine the best therapy for her clients.
-Educational psychologists to assess personality to determine the adjustment or learning difficulties of students.
-Industrial psychologists to assess personality to help determine the right candidates, match between job requirements with the needs and interests of prospective employees.
-Clinical psychologist trying to distinguish between normal people with abnormal personality traits and try to evaluate his client to understand the symptoms and feelings. Through proper personality assessment clinical psychologist can determine the best therapy for her clients.
-Educational psychologists to assess personality to determine the adjustment or learning difficulties of students.
-Industrial psychologists to assess personality to help determine the right candidates, match between job requirements with the needs and interests of prospective employees.
Assessment / Measurement of Personality required to:
- Standardization: the consistency and uniformity of the conditions and procedure of measuring instruments
- Reliability: there is consistency of subject response to the measure (steady)
- Validity: The measurement technique should actually measure what you want to measure
Social psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the interaction of individuals with other individuals
Social influences result in the group
Two main factors responsible for the group's ability to change individual behavior:
- Diffusion of responsibility
- Behavior of individuals in the group affected by the process of modeling
NORMS
Norms are a set of rules that apply in the community that provide limits for individual behavior. In the context of the group, the norm is a rule that applied or applicable to all members of the group.
CONFORMITY
Conformity is the result of pressure groups although there was no direct request to comply.
Arise when individuals adopt attitudes / behaviors of others because of pressure from their real or imaginary.
PERSUASI
Persuasion is the process of changing the attitudes of other individuals through the arguments and other means. Persuasive communication is not dependent on whether or not a logical argument → logic is only one of the least important factor!
socialThe quality of persuasive communication depends on the general categories of: characteristics of the speaker, message, channel, and the listener.
1.James Lange Theory (William James, 1890 and Carl Lange, 1922)
Generally, emotion: stimulus → fear (emotion) → shaking
According to James-Lange: contrary.
Stimulus → thalamus (sensory relay center) → → hypothalamus bodily reactions (shaking) → → cortex emotion (fear). That is, the emotions as a result of physiological reactions that arise due to the stimulus that we receive from the environment.
Critics Darr Walter Cannon (1927):
Experiment: disconnection of nerve intercessory info body's reaction to the cortex → who experienced normal emotional reaction
Physical reaction to some emotions are relatively the same, how do I differentiate?
Internal organs to respond relatively slowly to raise the required reaction.
Experiments: injection of the hormone adrenaline → trigger physical reactions but caused no emotion.
Generally, emotion: stimulus → fear (emotion) → shaking
According to James-Lange: contrary.
Stimulus → thalamus (sensory relay center) → → hypothalamus bodily reactions (shaking) → → cortex emotion (fear). That is, the emotions as a result of physiological reactions that arise due to the stimulus that we receive from the environment.
Critics Darr Walter Cannon (1927):
Experiment: disconnection of nerve intercessory info body's reaction to the cortex → who experienced normal emotional reaction
Physical reaction to some emotions are relatively the same, how do I differentiate?
Internal organs to respond relatively slowly to raise the required reaction.
Experiments: injection of the hormone adrenaline → trigger physical reactions but caused no emotion.
2.Cannon-Bard theory
Experience emotional and physical reactions occur simultaneously and are two independent events.
Stimulus → thalamus → (cortex → emotion (fear) and hypothalamus → tremble (physical reaction).
Experience emotional and physical reactions occur simultaneously and are two independent events.
Stimulus → thalamus → (cortex → emotion (fear) and hypothalamus → tremble (physical reaction).
3.Cognitive Theories
- Arnold-Ellis
Emotional reaction depends on the cognitive interpretation of the stimulus situation.
Stimulus → thalamus → cortex - hypothalamus → physical reactions. - Schachter-Singer's two-factor theory of emotion
Emotional reaction depends on the cognitive interpretation of stimuli and reactions to situations physiological / behavioral
Stimulus → thalamus → cortex,-- hypothalamus → cortex physical reactions.
Emotions are positive and negative feelings who come from situations / stimuli that affect the individual.
Evans (1989): the feeling that involves a mix of physical reactions (ex: heart rate increases), conscious experience (ex: fall in love), who looks and behavior (ex: a smile)
So, the elements include emotion, stimulus, conscious experience, physical reactions, and behaviors.
Evans (1989): the feeling that involves a mix of physical reactions (ex: heart rate increases), conscious experience (ex: fall in love), who looks and behavior (ex: a smile)
So, the elements include emotion, stimulus, conscious experience, physical reactions, and behaviors.
Factors affecting the emotional
- Individual's physical state (ex: pain, lbh sensitive feelings)
- The ground state of individual / private structure of the individual (eg, irritability org yg)
- Individual circumstances at a time (temporary) for example: people who are normal people frantically VS.
Types of Emotions:
Basic human emotions (Rene Descartes, 1596-1650):- love
- excitement
- desire
- hate
- sad
- amazed
- Negative or positive
- Primary or mixed
- Some who are polar opposite
- its intensity varies
Eight primary emotions: acceptance, fear, surprise, Sadness, disgust, anger, Anticipation, joy.
8 mixture of emotions:
Several opposite emotions. Ex: love> <sorry, optimistic> <disappointment, sadness> <joy, etc.
Process Emotions
- Love (joy + acceptance)
- Adherent (reception + fear)
- Awe (fear + surprise)
- Disappointed (shocked anguish +)
- Remorse (sadness + disgust)
- Contempt (anger + disgust)
- Aggressiveness (anger anticipation +)
- Optimism (anticipation + joy
Several opposite emotions. Ex: love> <sorry, optimistic> <disappointment, sadness> <joy, etc.
Process Emotions
Emotional reactions involving cognitive, physiological, and behavioral.
-Cognitive form of thoughts, impressions, memories, interpretations. The situation can lead to pleasure, or distress, depending on how the assessments and individual meanings.
-Physiological, emotional interaction with the limbic system, cerebral cortex, autonomic nervous system, and the hormonal (endocrine). Cerebral cortex associated with the hypothalamus, amygdala and other limbic system structures. The ability to regulate emotions depends pd function is located in the prefrontal cortex blkg forehead. The amygdala function as an early warning system will be a threatening situation.
Real behavior, emotional displays of angry, sad, fearful, or happy. Ex: facial expression.
-Physiological, emotional interaction with the limbic system, cerebral cortex, autonomic nervous system, and the hormonal (endocrine). Cerebral cortex associated with the hypothalamus, amygdala and other limbic system structures. The ability to regulate emotions depends pd function is located in the prefrontal cortex blkg forehead. The amygdala function as an early warning system will be a threatening situation.
Real behavior, emotional displays of angry, sad, fearful, or happy. Ex: facial expression.
The moral is an procedure, habits, customs.
The moral and power of thought / Cognitive are the ones who distinguishes man from other creatures.
The moral and power of thought / Cognitive are the ones who distinguishes man from other creatures.
Piaget's theory
- Moral understanding in children + 7 th of moral realism, moral as something absolute and unchanging.
- Behavior considered right and wrong, justice remains. Obedience is based solely on the consequences of action.
- In early adolescence, enter Moral Autonomus or morals as something relative to a specific situation
- Teenagers as a moral view of social agreement, the rules will change if the values change.
- True or false depending on the purpose and consequences.
Kohlberg's theory
- Pre-conventional: 1) compliance & reason fear the consequences of punishment 2) the reason the tool / intermediaries to follow the rules just based on personal needs or concerns on others (for fear of negative consequences of actions).
- Conventional: 1) Good-Child Morality: expectations and approval from others 2) Law & Order Morality: stick to the rules of order and approved (the guilt of others if they do not follow the demands of surface).
- Post conventional: 1) the reasons for the social contract are aware of the value and diversity of opinion 2) adhered to the principle of universal conscience as a sense of responsibility (of regret or self-punishment for not following his own moral sense).